Life and culture:
the influence, tradition, and hardships of the 19th Century
The Century of Humiliation unveiled many problems and weaknesses in China's stubborn approach to a dynamic century. With natural disasters, foreign influences, and drugs infiltrating an overwhelming population, Chinese morale and stability dwindled. The Chinese attempted to steadfastly hold to tradition, but in order to move forward as a nation, China was forced to take on foreign way of thinking. While many of these foreign ways positively influenced China's recovery, many also sparked rebellion and tension.
the Struggle to Thrive
![]() Crowd of Chinese refugees of the Yellow River flood who were rescued by Japanese forces
by Sweeper tamonten, used under CC BY-NC NATURAL DISASTERS China's population boomed from 300 million to 450 million by the end of the 19th century. However, while the population in China continued to grow, bureaucratic growth remained stagnant. Soon, local authorities became responsible for an overwhelming 250,000 people, causing major inconsistencies in government throughout the nation ("Introduction", 2001). With devastating natural disasters at hand, this chaotic situation and already sparse land would escalate into a further displacement of people and community. Drought, majorly in 1873-1876, set the stage for a devastating famine for at least the next few years. People traded their last possessions for the simplest of needs, and when there were no more buyers, they resorted to living off of tree bark, grass roots, and the little usable land that remained. In this short time period, around 9.5 million people died as little help reached the large numbers of poor and suffering in time ("Qing China", 2001). Floods, disease, and earthquakes continued to impoverish and kill many of the already struggling Chinese. The bubonic plague and various other illnesses spread quickly through the large population of often homeless men, women, and children. Earthquakes, such as the Gansu Earthquake in 1879, claimed thousands of lives and destroyed already limited livable space. Further, in 1887 the Yellow River flooded, and between 1 and 2 million lives were claimed. This river flooded again 11 years later. Flooding not only claimed lives but also contributed to the spread of disease and disaster for all ("Qing China", 2001). Everything considered, China's ability to provide for its large population continued to whither. Disease, poverty, and discontentment spread, and rebellions and disorganization were inevitable. Additionally, natural resources needed for trade were destroyed. However, it is possible that such disaster prompted China to make divisive decisions to either modernize and accept foreign influences or hold even tighter to traditional values and ways. Above are a series of woodblock prints from the 19th century illustrating the horrible effects that the natural disasters, namely famine, had on the people of China.
the life of the common man
THE ROLE OF MEN AND WOMEN During the 19th century, the family was the basic unit of life and of highest importance ("Chinese Marriage", 2004). Men were most often involved in agriculture, trade, or manual labor and were the major authority figures in the home, government, and political scene. The common man worked at low wages, and many had the desire to find government employment for stability, pay, and boarding. It is important to realize that being employed by the government meant more stability and essentially some sort of authority. With such a large population, cheap labor became more prevalent and a point of interest to other countries (Doolittle, 1865). Women, on the other hand, were to put their efforts into maintaining the family and being modest ("Chinese Marriage", 2004). Many of the very poor women, however, worked for needle manufacturers and either sharpened and polished needles or did needle-work for clothing stores (Doolittle,1865). Moreover, arranged marriages happened at a young age, and the woman was pressured to give her husband a son. If a woman could not provide her husband with a son, the woman was not as highly respected; moreover, concubines were not uncommon of the time to provide a son for the family (Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014)(Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014)(Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014)(Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014)(Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014). Although different religions and philosophies remained in China, Confucian beliefs were embedded in Chinese society. Whether man, woman, or child, this meant that each person's ideals and daily work should be community-based and focused on fostering and respecting the Five Relationships. This concept builds on benefiting the community as a whole as well as working within each relationship to better and serve each other (J. Keating, course lecture, November 2014). . Five Relationships of Confucianism |
education and tradition
![]() by Underwood & Underwood, London & New York, used under Public Domain EDUCATION AND IMMIGRATION A misconception in the Chinese culture is that the girl is never educated. Though this may be true for some of the poorer classes, girls were typically taught by the same teacher, or tutor, as their brothers or other boys. Every family employed their own tutor for elementary education. Girls were taught to read and to write, but around the age of fifteen the young woman would leave school and be forced into the domestic circle. Most mothers hoped most for their daughters to become a good housekeeper (Leong, 1923, pp. 93-94). A young boy would go to school early in the morning until sunset. The boy was allowed only a one hour break for meals a day and attended school seven days a week, including holidays. Unlike education today, the authorities played very limited roles in the child’s education, and the tutor made the decisions on what the child would learn. Such an approach was taken so that the right tutor could be picked for the right student. Society also suggested that this kept a “bright” child away from “dull” children to keep the child from being slowed down. On the other hand, poorer children, a major part of the population, had to seek out a school to attend. These schools were usually put on by a tutor that would only sacrifice so many hours a week. Because of this, most children did not receive a proper education; therefore, moving up the ladder of education and status became quite the feat (Leong, 1923, pp. 94-97). For both girls and boys, Confucian classics tended to be the focus of learning. However, a young man had the opportunity to pass through higher levels of education, or more precisely "status levels" in higher education per a test. He would be able to take three separate, grueling exams at the county, provincial, and national levels. These were known as the imperial examinations, or civil service examinations. The county level test was the xiucai, which means “budding talent.” This would be similar to today’s BA degree. The next exam was the juren, which means “recommended man.” This could be considered close to a MA degree. Whoever could pass the third and highest level would be a “presented scholar", or of jinshi level. The success rate of these exams was only 2% nationally, and they were used to obtain the status of having something comparable to a PhD. These multiple-day exams caused much suffering to the test taker, and some died taking the exams. However, it is also important to note that these exams did not test on the more modern subjects of the rest of the world’s standards, which reveals a source of weakness to foreign affairs with even the highest ranking Chinese scholars at hand (Chan, 2006). Thus, following many embarrassing defeats in China by other countries, China realized that it was behind technologically and in certain areas of education. China was forced to pay many indemnities after suffering these defeats as well. However, some positive relations came out of this situation. Click here to learn about the Chinese Education Mission that sent young Chinese men to America by scholarship to receive an education (CEM Connections, 2001). Additionally, as China's internal struggles ensued, work and education became harder to come by. Many men that could not acquire the education or employment required to sustain life immigrated West in hopes of finding wealth in America during the California Gold Rush (Teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu, 2014). ART AND TRADITION FAMILY As the family unit remained a major component of Chinese culture, so did the emphasis of living together with many generations of a family. Marriages, which were most often centered around advancing a family's status or economic standing, promoted the expansion of families and the continuance of the family name. Moreover, the young brides would most often be housed under the husband's family and many ties to her own family were cut ("Chinese Marriage", 2004). FOOT BINDING By the 19th century, the practice that used to be symbol of the elite had trickled down the ranks of classes. Foot binding was a part of the beauty culture and status in China that involved breaking the bones in a young girl's toes and feet to curl under the foot. This created the appearance of small, dainty feet, a beauty trend that dates back to the late Tang Dynasty (Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014) . Typically, a young Chinese girl would begin foot binding at the age of seven (Leong, 1923, pp. 92). However, the poor would often delay the process--if they were to do it at all--so that the girl could still do her work around the home (Chnm.gmu.edu, 2014). ART In Chinese art, each stroke is meaningful, and typically nature is used to tell a story while staying minimal (J. Keating, course lecture, September 2013). During the Qing Dynasty, three major types of artists worked to interpret the world around them: the traditionalists, the elite and professionals, and the individualists. To explore the art of the the Qing Dynasty and these types of artists, click on the picture below. ![]() Golden pheasant rank badge, 2nd rank civil servant, silk tapestry with painted details. China, Qing Dynasty, late 18th – early 19th century. Denver Art Museum
by Unknown, used under Public Domain |
Below is a document about the social life and ways of the Chinese during the 1800s.
dRUGS & FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN SOCIETY
THE POWER OF OPIUM Opium became a major concern in the 19th century. Because even the most respected officials or scholars could be addicted, China found itself in a state of disorganization, non-transparency, and incoherency (Mancall, 1984, pp.97.) Opium's effects allowed for those suffering to live, or die, more painlessly (Bernard, 2012).. Moreover, it provided a euphoria that could not be found in a country struggling with both external and internal obstacles. Therefore, in this century of hardship, the addiction rate to opium was very high, and people wanted to get the drug into their body however possible. Smoking tobacco, which began in the early 17th century, quickly gave way to the method of inhaling opium, which heightened its effects. By the beginning of the 19th century, a third of the Chinese were addicted despite the outlaw from one hundred years prior. Even more, foreign traders were making huge profits from China's addicted population by selling the opium for five time's what it cost them. The rampant addiction proved a major factor to China's struggle to thrive (Bernard, 2012). For a closer look at information on the addiction, trade, and global use of opium, click here. With addiction infiltrating all classes, the Chinese government tried to make different attempts to regain control over the trade and consumption of the addictive drug. Conflicts known as the Opium Wars ensued, and a defeated China was forced to open ports for even more foreign trade and therefore more foreign influence on traditions, customs, and culture. |
MISSIONARIES MAKING A DIFFERENCE Missionaries played a great role in China's rich history in the 19th century. In 1807, an English missionary by the name of Robert Morrison brought thousands of Protestant men, their wives, and children to live and work in China. When they first arrived, they were restricted to only work in a few factories in Canton (now Guangzhou). However, in 1842, a treaty after the First Opium War granted the missionaries freedom of labor. In 1860, a treaty passed after the Second Opium War opened the Chinese borders to even more missionaries. This was the start of an influx of Protestant missionaries across the Chinese borders. Missionaries able to make it into the Chinese borders pressed for the expansion of Christianity in China. One American by the name of Elijah Coleman Bridgman arrived in Guangzhou in 1830 and founded a Christian literature printing press, enabling the Christian word to be spread amongst a greater population ("19th Century", 2007). Nevertheless, health problems were a major concern, and most missionaries would not be able to seek medical attention. This was largely in part of the language barrier between the Chinese community and the missionaries. Moreover, a vast majority of the missionaries found it incredibly difficult to learn the Chinese language. To further complicate the situation, the Chinese were also very difficult to convert to Christianity. Many Chinese would only convert for material benefit. Because of this, missionaries would establish hospitals and schools to attract more Chinese, which would prove effective ("19th Century", 2007). To spread Christianity and help improve the health of a struggling nation, different hospitals were set up around China. However, the missionaries quickly found out that it took time to gain the support and trust of the Chinese. When Western medicine was established in China in the 19th century, most Chinese physicians were reluctant to believe in their practices. The other barrier that most physicians ran into was the custom the men should not practice invasive medical procedures on a woman. This would force a demand for female missionary doctors as many missionary doctors were men. With the divide in pay between sexes, it would become difficult for the hospitals to staff enough female doctors to keep up with the demand. A movement was started by Dr. Mary H. Fulton which encouraged many female doctors to practice in China. Thus, the push for Christianity as well as Western education initiated the rise of Western medicine in China ("19th Century", 2007). To gain a more global perspective on the world during this time and leading up to the opium addiction in China, watch the video above. While the first quarter of the video specifically talks about opium and its effects on China, it is important to realize that this part of history did not simply stop and become resolved after a war. Rather, opium and other happenings in the 19th century went on to influence today's drugs and society.
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Created by: Kendra Lucas
References
Pictures, Images, and Videos
Bernard, S.C. [Documentary Feast]. (2012, November 7). Hooked - Opium, Morphine & Heroin (Documentary) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_BG_KCJ7oI
Bravo, J. (2013). Knight. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/knight/18620/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). They Sell Their Fields and Take Their Houses to Pieces (to Sell the Materials). [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). They Strip Off the Bark of Trees and Dig Up the Grass Roots for Food. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). Suicides in Consequence of the Famine. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). A Famishing Woman Is Taken in Labor, Mother and Child Both Die. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Dallago, D. (2014). Senior-Citizen. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/senior-citizen/61229/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Hanafiah, R. (2014). Baby. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/baby/54622/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Hetteix, D. (2014). Friends. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/friends/29238/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Kortun, R. (2013). Family. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/family/26156/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Lucas, K. (2014). Five Relationships of Confucianism. [Infographic]. Public domain image.
Prado, L. (2012). Wedding. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/wedding/3716/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Sweeper tamonten. (2008). Crowd of Chinese refugees of the Yellow River flood who were rescued by Japanese forces. [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Refugees_of_Yellow_River_Flood.JPG. Public domain image.
Underwood & Underwood, London & New York. (1911). A HIGH CASTE LADY'S DAINTY "LILY FEET". [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg. Public domain image.
Unkown. (turn of the 18th/19th century). Golden pheasant rank badge, 2nd rank civil servant, silk tapestry with painted details. China, Qing Dynasty, late 18th – early 19th century. Denver Art Museum. [silk tapestry with painted details]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_pheasant_rank_badge,_2nd_rank_civil_servant,_Qing_Dynasty,_Denver_Art_Museum.jpg. Public domain image.
Unknown. (c. 1900). Imperialism in China around 1900. [Art]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bu_yan-er_yu_yi_mu_liao-ran.jpg. Public domain image.
Unknown. Palace Examination at Kaifeng, Song Dynasty, China. [Painting]. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg. Public domain image.
Corsbie, K. (2014). 19th Century China Logo. [Art]. Available under Public Domain.
Header Image
Unknown. (1893). Chinese family in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1893 [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Family_in_Hawaii_1893.jpg. Public domain image.
Information
CEM Connections - HOME. (2001, October 27). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://www.cemconnections.org/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1
Chan, C. (2006, March 17). Teaching the Chinese Learner in Higher Education. Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/2Historic_and_Cultural_Background_of_Education_in_China
Chinese Art | Portrait of Jalafengge (fl. 2d half 19th century) | S1991.82. (2005, June 6). Retrieved
December 4, 2014, from http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/singleObject.cfm?ObjectNumber=S1991.82
Chinese Marriage and Family in the 19th ad 20th Century. (2004, February 19). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://faculty.randolphcollege.edu/fwebb/buck/vmguarisco/Culture.htm
Doolittle, J. (1865). Social life of the Chinese: with some account of the religious, governmental, educational, and business customs and opinions. With special but not exclusive reference to Fuchchau. New York: Harper & Bros..
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. (2005, July 14). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_1/hd
Chnm.gmu.edu,. (2014). Women in World History : MODULE 10. Retrieved 10 December 2014, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson10/lesson10.php?s=0 Introduction to China's Modern History | Asia for Educators | Columbia University. (2001, January 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_
Leong, Y., & Tao, L. (1923). Village and Town Life in China. Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press.
Mancall, M. (1984). China at The Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy. New York: Free Press.
Qing China's Internal Crisis: Land Shortage, Famine, Rural Poverty | Asia for Educators | Columbia University. (2001, January 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_17
Teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu,. (2014). The Chinese Experience in 19th Century America. Retrieved 10 December 2014, from http://teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu/chinese_exp/introduction04.html
Women in World History : MODULE 10. (2013, May 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson10/lesson10.php?s=0
19th Century Protestant Missions in China. (2007, January 1). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://medlibrary.org/medwiki/19th_Century_Protestant_Missions_in_China
Bernard, S.C. [Documentary Feast]. (2012, November 7). Hooked - Opium, Morphine & Heroin (Documentary) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e_BG_KCJ7oI
Bravo, J. (2013). Knight. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/knight/18620/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). They Sell Their Fields and Take Their Houses to Pieces (to Sell the Materials). [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). They Strip Off the Bark of Trees and Dig Up the Grass Roots for Food. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). Suicides in Consequence of the Famine. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. (1878). A Famishing Woman Is Taken in Labor, Mother and Child Both Die. [Woodblock Print]. Retrieved from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_demographic.htm. Public domain image.
Dallago, D. (2014). Senior-Citizen. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/senior-citizen/61229/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Hanafiah, R. (2014). Baby. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/baby/54622/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Hetteix, D. (2014). Friends. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/friends/29238/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Kortun, R. (2013). Family. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/family/26156/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Lucas, K. (2014). Five Relationships of Confucianism. [Infographic]. Public domain image.
Prado, L. (2012). Wedding. [Noun Project Graphic]. Retrieved from http://thenounproject.com/term/wedding/3716/. Available under CC BY 3.0.
Sweeper tamonten. (2008). Crowd of Chinese refugees of the Yellow River flood who were rescued by Japanese forces. [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Refugees_of_Yellow_River_Flood.JPG. Public domain image.
Underwood & Underwood, London & New York. (1911). A HIGH CASTE LADY'S DAINTY "LILY FEET". [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_HIGH_CASTE_LADYS_DAINTY_LILY_FEET.jpg. Public domain image.
Unkown. (turn of the 18th/19th century). Golden pheasant rank badge, 2nd rank civil servant, silk tapestry with painted details. China, Qing Dynasty, late 18th – early 19th century. Denver Art Museum. [silk tapestry with painted details]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Golden_pheasant_rank_badge,_2nd_rank_civil_servant,_Qing_Dynasty,_Denver_Art_Museum.jpg. Public domain image.
Unknown. (c. 1900). Imperialism in China around 1900. [Art]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bu_yan-er_yu_yi_mu_liao-ran.jpg. Public domain image.
Unknown. Palace Examination at Kaifeng, Song Dynasty, China. [Painting]. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Palastexamen-SongDynastie.jpg. Public domain image.
Corsbie, K. (2014). 19th Century China Logo. [Art]. Available under Public Domain.
Header Image
Unknown. (1893). Chinese family in Honolulu, Hawaii in 1893 [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chinese_Family_in_Hawaii_1893.jpg. Public domain image.
Information
CEM Connections - HOME. (2001, October 27). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://www.cemconnections.org/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1
Chan, C. (2006, March 17). Teaching the Chinese Learner in Higher Education. Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://media.leidenuniv.nl/legacy/2Historic_and_Cultural_Background_of_Education_in_China
Chinese Art | Portrait of Jalafengge (fl. 2d half 19th century) | S1991.82. (2005, June 6). Retrieved
December 4, 2014, from http://www.asia.si.edu/collections/singleObject.cfm?ObjectNumber=S1991.82
Chinese Marriage and Family in the 19th ad 20th Century. (2004, February 19). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://faculty.randolphcollege.edu/fwebb/buck/vmguarisco/Culture.htm
Doolittle, J. (1865). Social life of the Chinese: with some account of the religious, governmental, educational, and business customs and opinions. With special but not exclusive reference to Fuchchau. New York: Harper & Bros..
Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. (2005, July 14). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/qing_1/hd
Chnm.gmu.edu,. (2014). Women in World History : MODULE 10. Retrieved 10 December 2014, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson10/lesson10.php?s=0 Introduction to China's Modern History | Asia for Educators | Columbia University. (2001, January 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/timelines/china_
Leong, Y., & Tao, L. (1923). Village and Town Life in China. Westport, Conn.: Hyperion Press.
Mancall, M. (1984). China at The Center: 300 Years of Foreign Policy. New York: Free Press.
Qing China's Internal Crisis: Land Shortage, Famine, Rural Poverty | Asia for Educators | Columbia University. (2001, January 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_17
Teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu,. (2014). The Chinese Experience in 19th Century America. Retrieved 10 December 2014, from http://teachingresources.atlas.illinois.edu/chinese_exp/introduction04.html
Women in World History : MODULE 10. (2013, May 11). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson10/lesson10.php?s=0
19th Century Protestant Missions in China. (2007, January 1). Retrieved December 4, 2014, from http://medlibrary.org/medwiki/19th_Century_Protestant_Missions_in_China